EnhancingSchoolSuccesswithMnemonicStrategies.pdf

Enhancing School Success with Mnemonic Strategies
MARGO A. MASTROPIERI AND THOMAS E. SCRUCGGS

Many students with disabilities and those at risk for educational failure exhibit problems
with remembering materials covered in school. Suggestions for helping these students
improve memory for school content are described in this article. In particular, mnemonic
instruction is described and examples are provided of how it can be used to increase
school learning and memory of students with learning difficulties.

A few years ago, we revisited an inner-city middle school where-about a year before we had
conducted an investigation on the effectiveness of mnemonic techniques in helping students
with mild cognitive disabilities remember U.S. states and capitals. As we entered the classroom,
Crystal, a student classified as mildly mentally handicapped, recognized one of our graduate
students immediately.

“Hay! I remember you!” she exclaimed enthusiastically.

“You were here last year-you taught us states and capitals! I remember, go ahead, ask me
one!”

“Well, uh,” replied our colleague, taken slightly by surprise, “How about … Florida? What’s the
capital of Florida?”

“That’s too easy!” she said, smiling. “Here it is: Florida, the keyword is flower-the flower is on a
television set, and television is the keyword for Tallahassee!”

In this scenario, a student classified as mentally retarded effectively remembered information
she had been taught 1 year previously. Even more impressive was the fact that she had not
reviewed or rehearsed this information with any teacher since the last time we had seen her! As
startling as this scenario is, it underscores something we have been witnessing for many years:
the incredible power of mnemonic strategies to increase dramatically the amount of information
students remember, even students with learning problems. In this article, we describe the need
for effective memory strategies for school learning. Next, we provide a brief description of what
mnemonic strategies are and what they are not. Following that, we describe how you can use

these powerful learning tools to enhance the school success of your own students.

THE NEED FOR MNEMONIC STRATEGIES

According to the Sixteenth Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals
with Disabilities Act (U.S. Department of Education, I 994), 71.2 % of all students now spend all
or a substantial part of their school day in general education classrooms. As many as 78.9% of
students with learning disabilities spend all or most of their educational time in general
education classrooms. On the secondary level, students with disabilities are included in content
area classrooms, such as English, science, and social studies classes. Largely, ability to
succeed in these classrooms determines their level of success in school.

What factors determine whether a student will succeed in secondary content-area classrooms?
Putnam (1992b) surveyed 7th- and 10th-grade teachers in Kansas,

INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC VOL. 33, No. 4, MARCH 1996 (PP. 201-208) 201

Indiana, and Florida, and reported that an average of nearly half of a student’s report card
grades depended on test performance. Clearly, such factors as attendance, punctuality,
participation, and homework completion are also important. However, teachers made it clear
that test scores were the single most important factor in report card grades. Teachers gave an
average of 11 of these tests over the course of a single 9-week grading period. Clearly,
students’ academic survival is tied very closely with performance on academic tests.

In addition to the number of tests teachers give, Putnam (1992a) also examined the types of
questions teachers asked on tests. He found that the overwhelming majority of test questions
students were asked required facn1al recall:

The majority of questions on tests administered by main­ stream secondary classroom teachers
required the student to recall a specific foct­2 S.3 per test. A sample question that asked for a
specific fact was “Who discovered America?” Other possible responses, such as conclusion,
sequence, opinion, discrimination, compare and contrast, purpose, correct an example, and
summary, appeared about one per test. (p. 131)

Thus it can be seen that memory for factual information is absolutely essential for success in
school, particularly at the secondary level. Unfortunately, it is also true that students with
learning disabilities and other learning problems have been consistently shown to have
particular difficulties remembering academic content (e.g., Cooney & Swanson, 1987). Our work
in the area of mnemonic (memory-enhancing) strategies has been devoted to finding ways of
increasing the amount of content-area information students are able to remember. This article
provides information on the utility, and effectiveness, of mnemonic strategies in enhancing
memory for school learning.

WHAT MNEMONIC STRATEGIES ARE

A1nemonic strategies are systematic procedures for enhancing memory. Their particular use is
in developing better ways to take in (encode) information so that it will be much easier to
remember (retrieve). Although there are retrieval strategies that can be employed to attempt to

retrieve information that has been forgotten, research has demonstrated that the way we
encode information when we first study facilitates memory better. The particular task in
developing mnemonic strategies is to find a way to relate new information to information
students already have locked in long-term memory. If we can make a firm enough connection,
the memory will last a very long time. For example, Crystal had learned the capital of Florida so
well because the mnemonic strategy had carefully linked it to things she was very familiar with.
Because Florida sounds like flower (the keyword), it was easy to teach her to make an
automatic connection between Florida and flower:

What’s the keyword for Florida? Flower, good! And, what state is flower the keyword for? Good,
Florida!

It was also easy to teach her to establish a firm association between Tallahassee and television
because television was very familiar to Crystal and the two words, again, sound very similar:

What’s the keyword for Tallahassee? Television, good! And, what capital is television the
keyword for? Good, Tallahassee!

Having linked the two words (Florida, Tallahassee) to concrete, familiar words that sound similar
(flower, television), all that remains is to link the two familiar words together. And although
memory experts Harry Lorayne and Jerry Lucas have suggested that these words must be
associated “in some ridiculous way” (1974, p. 2 3), in fact all that is necessary is that the two
keywords be pictured in some meaningful interaction. In the Florida instance, a picture had
been created and displayed on an overhead projector of a flower sitting on a television set, as
shown in Figure I.

Although recalling that Tallahassee is the capital of Florida may be difficult for a student with
learning problems, remembering a picture of a flower on a television set was much simpler, and-
if the keywords had been learned-contained the same information. For this rea- son, we have
found mnemonic strategies constructed according to these procedures to be extraordinarily
effective (Mastropieri, Scruggs, Bakken, & Brigham, 1992).

Figure 1. Mnemonic representation of Tallahassee, capital of Florida. (Copyright I 993 by M.A.
Mastropieri and TE. Scruggs.)

202 INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC

WHAT MNEMONIC STRATEGIES ARE NOT

It might be helpful, at this point, to also mention briefly what mnemonic strategies are not.
Mnemonic strategies do not represent a “philosophy” of education. We do not use, or
recommend the use of, mnemonic strategies because they arc compatible with someone’s
particular philosophy or because they are a part of some- one’s theory about what education
should be. We recommend mnemonic strategies for only one reason: Over and over again, they
have been proven to be extremely effective in helping people remember things (Bulgren,
Schumaker, & Deshler, 1994; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1989).

It is also true that mnemonic strategies are not an overall teaching method or curricular
approach. The focus of mnemonic strategies is so specific that they are intended to be used to
enhance the recall of the components of any lesson for which memory is needed. We have
found, for example, that mnemonic strategies can be ·used to enhance science learning when
the curriculum involves a textbook/lecture format (Scruggs & Mastropicri, 1992) or when the
curriculum involves a hands-on, inquiry learning format (Mastropicri, Scruggs, & Chung, 1997).
Even though these approaches to science learning are very different (Mastropieri & Scruggs,
1994), mnemonic strategies can still be incorporated for the elements that require recall.

It is also important to consider that mnemonic strategies are memory strategies, and not
comprehension strategies. Students who are trained mnemonically also perform better on
comprehension tests of that content (e.g., Mastropieri, Scruggs, & Fulk, 1990; Scruggs,
Mastropicri, McLoone, Levin, & Morrison, 1987), but that is generally because they remember

more information that can be applied on comprehension tests. Nevertheless, when
comprehension enhancement is called for, it is important to consider using specific
comprehension strategies, such as content elaboration, prior knowledge activation,
manipulation, coaching and questioning, or prediction and verification (e.g., Mastropieri &
Scruggs, 1997; Scruggs, Mastropieri, Sullivan, & Hesser, 1993). Nevertheless, mnemonic
strategies do not inhibit com- prehension, as suggested by some (e.g., Kilpatrick, 1985), and,
more importantly, there arc many instances in school of students who have achieved adequate
com- prehension of a concept, but who have forgotten the facts associated with it. For example,
it is completely possible to comprehend the nature of states and capitals while being unable to
retrieve the capital of Florida. For another example, it is altogether possible to comprehend the
concepts of a cell having a nucleus and consuming other organisms while being unable to
retrieve the related verbal label (prokaryotic heterotroph). These are the areas where mnemonic
strategies can help.

Finally, it should be emphasized that mnemonic strategies do not represent an educational
panacea. There are many things that students must do to succeed in school, and remembering
content information is only one part of the entire picture. However, when there is academic
content to be remembered, mnemonic strategies may be an important instructional component.
In the next section, we discuss some general procedures for improving memory, followed by a
description of how to create specific mnemonic strategies.

GENERAL TECHNIQUES FOR IMPROVING MEMORY

Mnemonic strategies as described in this article arc not the only way of improving memory in
students who exhibit difficulty remembering things. It is important that you consider all possible
methods for improving memory and not assume that mnemonic strategies are your only option.
In other publications (Mastropieri & Scruggs, l 993; Mastropieri & Scruggs, in press), we have
described more general methods for improving memory. These include the following:

1. INCREASE AITENTION. Students will not remember something that they did not pay
attention to in the first place. Be sure your students’ memory problems are not really
attention problems. Use strategies for enhancing attention, such as intensifying
instruction, teaching enthusiastically, using more visual aids and activities, and
reinforcing attending.

2. PROMOTE EXTERNAL MEMORY. Many things that need to be remembered can be

written down, a practice known as “external memory.” Practices such as keeping an
assignment notebook and maintaining a student calendar can be helpful in remembering
to do things. Unfortunately, external memory is usually of little use (ethically, anyway) on
tests.

3. ENHANCE MEANINGFULNFSS. Find ways to relate the content being discussed to the

student’s prior knowledge. Draw parallels to the students’ own lives. Bring in concrete,
meaningful examples for students to explore so the content becomes more a part of their
experience.

4. USE PICTURES. Pictures can provide a substantial memory advantage. Use pictures on

the chalkboard or on the overhead projector. Bring in photographs or other illustrations.
Show concrete images on video- tape, when appropriate. If pictures are simply
unavailable, ask students to create images, or “pictures in their heads.”

VOL. 33. No. 4. MARCH 1998 203

5. MINIMIZE INTERFERENCE. Avoid digressions and emphasize only the critical features
of a new topic. Make sure all examples relate directly to the content being covered.

6. PROMOTE ACTIVE REASONING. Students re- member content better when they

experience it for themselves (Scruggs, Mastropieri, Bakken, & Brigham, 1993). For
example, rather than lecturing the class on the effect of weak acid (such as vinegar) on
calcite, allow students to place calcite in a glass of vinegar and see for themselves.

7. PROMOTE ACTIVE REASONING. Students remember better if they actively think

through new information, rather than simply repeating it. For example, rather than simply
telling students that penguins carry their eggs on the tops of their feet, ask students why
it makes sense that penguins would carry their eggs on the tops of their feet.

8. INCREASE THE AMOUNT OF PRACTICE. Students remember information better if

they have practice using it more frequently. Use lots of review in your teaching; do not
simply finish one topic and then never mention it again. Remind the class, and have
students practice previous information frequently.

All these strategies can be used to improve memory, and all should be considered.
Unfortunately, none of these strategies specifically targets recall of information contained in new
or unfamiliar words, and this is the aspect of memory where students most often fail. For
example, in the Scruggs, Mastropieri, Bakken, and Brig- ham (1993) investigation, students who
engaged in active manipulation remembered more information about electricity and rocks and
minerals than students who studied from textbooks. However, neither condition improved recall
of critical vocabulary or terminology, the area where mnemonic strategies are most effective. In
the following section, we describe several different types of mnemonic strategies that can be
used to improve students’ memory.

SPECIFIC MNEMONIC TECHNIQUES

The Keyword Method

The keyword method has already been described for helping students remember states and
capitals. However, the keyword method is extremely versatile and has a variety of helpful
applications. One possibility is in teaching new vocabulary words. For example, to help students
remember that barrister is another word for lawyer, first create a keyword for the unfamiliar
word, banister. Remember, a keyword is a word that sounds like the new word and is easily
pictured. A good keyword for barrister,

then, is bear. Then, you create a picture of the keyword and the definition doing something
together. It is important that these two things actually interact and are not simply presented in
the same picture. Therefore, a picture of a bear and a lawyer in one picture is not a good
mnemonic, because the elements are not interacting. A better picture would be a bear who is
acting as a lawyer in a courtroom, for example, pleading his client’s innocence. We have

created pictures and shown them on overhead projectors, but you could show them in other
ways as well. When you practice this strategy, be certain students understand all parts of it:

Class, barrister is another word for lawye1: To remember what a barrister is, first think of the
keyword for barrister: bear. Whats the keyword for barrister? [bear] Good, the keyword for
barrister is bear, and barrister means lawyer. Now [displays overhead] look at this pic­ ture of a
bear acting like a lawyer. The bear is the keyword for. .? [barrister/ Barrister, good. So
remember this picture of a bear acting like a lawyer. When you hear the word barrister, you first
think of the keyword…? [Bear] Good, and remember, what is the bear doing in the picture?
/being a lawyer}. Right, being a lawyer. So what does barrister mean? [lawyer] Lawyer, good.

The keyword method can also be used for more specialized vocabulary such as ranidae, the
scientific term for common frogs. A good keyword for ranidae could be rain, and you could show
a picture of frogs sitting in the rain. Practice the strategy as in the barrister example. When you
question individual students, ask them to give the answer and then describe how they
remembered. You should get an answer something like:

Ranidae is the word for common frogs. I remembered because the keyword is rain and it was
raining on the frogs.

If you practice the strategy carefully and frequently, students should remember this information
very well. At early stages of learning, you might find some students give the answer rain when
you ask what ranid(le means. In these cases, you simply remind the student,

No, rain is the keyword it just helps us remember the answer. Now, think in the picture,
what is it raining on? [frogs] Right, frogs. So what does ranidae mean? [common frogs].
Correct, common frogs.

Mnemonics can also be used in acquiring foreign language vocabulary. A list of some Italian
vocabulary words (from Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1991, p. 24) and corresponding mnemonic
strategies are given in Table l. Before you read, cover up the keywords and strategies and see if
you can come up with your own.

Keywords have also been used to improve recall of map locations. For example, students with
learning dis- abilities were much more successful in locating Revolutionary War battle locations
on a map when they

204 INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC

Table 1. Sample Italian Vocabulary Words and Corresponding Mnemonic Strategies

Word & meaning Keyword Strategy
meta (apple) mail an apple in a mailbox
capre (goat) cop a goat dressed like a

cop
Iago (lake) log a log in a lake
carta (letter) cart a cart with a letter in

it

Word & meaning Keyword Strategy
fonda (bag) phone a phone in a bag

were mnemonically encoded (e.g., a picture of a tiger, keyword for Fort Ticonderoga) than when
representational pictures were used. When asked for the location of Fort Ticonderoga, students
proved much more able to identify where on the map the tiger had been than they were to
identify the location of a more traditional illustration. Further, if the tiger was shown tending a
cannon, students were more likely to remember that at Fort Ticonderoga, cannons were
captured that were helpful in the American war effort (Brigham, Scruggs, & Mastropieri, 1995).

The Pegword Method

Pegwords can be used when numbered or ed information needs to be remembered.
Pegwords are rhyming words for numbers and include the following:

One is bun, six is sticks,
two is shoe, seven is heaven,
three is tree, eight is gate,
four is door, nine is vine,
five is hive, ten is hen.

Pegwords are substituted for the number to be remembered and associated with the other
information. For instance, to remember that insects have six legs whereas spiders have eight
legs, create a picture of insects on sticks (see Figure 2) and another picture of a spider on a
gate. To remember Newton’s first law of motion (objects at rest tend to remain at rest unless
acted on by another force), create a picture of a bun (pegword for one) resting. To remember
that a garden rake is an example of a third-class lever, create a picture of a rake leaning against
a tree (pegword for three, or third).

Pegwords can also be combined with keywords. To teach that crocoite is a mineral that is
number 2 on the Mohs hardness scale, create a picture of crocodiles (key- word for crocoite)
wearing shoes (pegword for 2). To remember that the mineral wolframite is hardness num- ber
4, black in color, and used in making filaments for lightbulbs, create a picture of a black wolf
(keyword for wolframite), looking in a door (pegword for 4), and turn- ing on a lightbulb.
Research has shown that elaborate strategies such as this are very effective, and that color,
appropriately encoded, can also be easily remembered (Scruggs, Mastropieri, Levin, & Gaffney,
1985). That is, a picture of a black wolf is much more likely to be remembered than a picture of
wolframite colored black. Pegwords can also be extended beyond the number 10 (11 is lever,
12 is elf, etc.). For instance, to remember that the 19th amendment of the U.S. Constitution
guar- anteed women the right to vote, create a picture of a woman dressed as a knight (19 =
knighting) riding to a voting booth. To remember that James K. Polk was the 11th American
president, create a picture of a polka dotted (keyword for Polk) lever (pegword for 11) as
shown in Figure 3 (Mastropieri, Scruggs, & Whedon,1997).

INSECTS 6 (sticks) legs

Figure 2. Mnemonic representation of insects having six legs. (Copyright 1993 by M.A.
Mastropieri and TE. Scruggs.)

Figure 3. Mnemonic representation of Polk as the 11th U.S. president. (Copyright 1993 by M.A.
Mastropieri and TE. Scruggs.)

VOL. 33. No. 4. MARCH 1998 205

Pegwords can also be extended beyond the number 19, by using, for example, twenty is twinty
(twins), thirty is thirsty, forty is party, and fifty is “gifty,” or gift-wrapped. For example, to
remember the math fact, 7 x 8 = 56, create a picture and practice the pegword phrase,
“Heaven’s (7) gate (8) holds gifty sticks” (pegword for 56). To remember that Taft was the 27th
president, create a picture of a taffy (keyword for Taft), being pulled between twin heavens
(pegword for 27).

Letter Strategies

Letter strategies, which involve using letter prompts to remember lists of things, arc the most
familiar to students. Most former students remember using the acronym HOMES to remember
the names of the Great Lakes and FACE to remember the notes represented in the spaces of
the treble clef, from bottom to top. Except for the FACE strategy, however, most acronyms
assume that a name of something will be remembered when the first letter is retrieved.
However, this may not always be true. For example, if a student is unfamiliar with Lake Ontario,
remembering simply that the first letter is O is insufficient to prompt recall. The names of the
individual lakes must be practiced until they have become familiar.

Acronyms are most helpful when the first letters of a list can be used to create an entire word;
however, sometimes modifications can be made. For instance, consider the acronym FARM-B,
which represents the five classes of vertebrate animals: fish, amphibian, reptile, mammal, and
bird, as shown in Figure 4. The B for bird does not really fit, but it can be added to FARM and
practiced until it becomes automatic. In other cases, appropriate words cannot be easily con-
structed from the first letters of the words to be remembered. For example, if you wished to
remember the names of the planets in their from the sun, the letters would be M-V-E-M-J-
S-U-N-P, from which a word cannot be made. In these cases, an acrostic can be created, in
which the first letters are reconstructed to represent the words in a sentence. In this case, the
sentence could be “My very educated mother just sent us nine pizzas” (Mastropieri & Scruggs,
1994, p. 271). Again, the names of the planets must be sufficiently familiar so that students can
retrieve a planet name, given only the first letter. Also, students should be sufficiently familiar
with the solar system to know that the first M stands for Mercury, and not Mars.

For another example, to remember the classification taxonomy of living things, remember the
sentence, “King Philip’s class ed a family of gentle spaniels.” This sentence helps prompt
kingdom, phylum, class, , family, genus, and species, in .

Figure 4. Mnemonic representation of the vertebrates: fish, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and
birds. (Note: From A Practical Guide for Teaching Science to Students with Special Needs in
Inclusive Settings [p. 158}, by M. A. Mastropieri and T E. Scruggs, 1991, Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
Reprinted with per- 111frsion.)

TRAINING INDEPENDENT STRATEGY USE

Several research studies have described the effects of training students with memory problems
how to use mnemonic strategies independently (Fulk, Mastropieri, & Scruggs, 1992; King-
Sears, Mercer, & Sindelar, 1992; Mastropieri, Scruggs, Levin, Gaffney, & McLoone, 1985;
McLoone, Scruggs, Mastropieri, & Zucker, 1986; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1992). The earlier
studies successfully trained students with disabilities to use the mnemonic procedures and then
to generalize the procedures for learning new vocabulary words (Mastropieri et al., 1985;
McLoone et al., 1986). More recent studies trained students with disabilities to use the
strategies across different content areas, including science and social studies (Fulk et al., 1992;
King-Sears et al., I 992; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1992). All of these studies demonstrated some
positive benefits for training students to use mnemonic strategies independently. More
importantly, however, studies shared seven common elements during the training sessions with
students with disabilities, as described by Fulk (1994) and Bulgren et al. (1994) and
summarized next.

STEP 1. Inform students about the purpose of the instruction and the rationale for the strategy
training. Tell students that strategy training will be beneficial for them and that their efforts at
using the strategies will result in better performance. Provide examples of how the strategy can
be beneficial across a variety of learning situations and content areas. For example, in teaching
students how to implement the strategy to learn science vocabulary, show them how the
method can also be helpful in learning social studies content and for learning English and
foreign language vocabulary.

STEP 2. Provide instruction in the strategy and in positive attributions toward strategy usage.
Demonstrate,

206 INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC

model, and lead students using many examples to ensure their complete understanding of the
mnemonic process during the strategy component training. Provide instances and noninstances
of correct usage and have them identify and correct any incorrect examples.
Make charts listing the steps involved in generating strategies. King-Sears ct al. (1992) taught
students the IT FITS strategy:

Identify the term.
Tell the definition of the term. Find a keyword.
Imagine the definition doing something with the keyword.
Think about the definition doing something with the keyword.
Study what you imagined until you know the definition. (King­Sears et al., 1992, p. 27)

Provide ample modeling and practice with students, attributing their successes to strategy use.
Say, for example, “When I try hard and use the strategy, I will remember more information.”
Reinforce students for trying hard to use the strategy and attribute success and failure to
strategy usage.

STEP 3. Provide models during which examples and thinking processes are said aloud.
Demonstrate how you proceed with your thinking while generating a strategy for specific
examples. Include statements attributing your success to the hard effort and use of the strategy.

STEP 4. Allow students opportunities to practice orally and provide corrective feedback.
Practice several examples with the class as a whole. Encourage brainstorming during the
development of the keyword and interactive picture phase. Allow students to work in small
groups and practice generating strategies and brainstorming. Then, have students work with
partners to develop strategies before working independently.

STEP 5. Arrange guided practice with relevant feed- back on both strategy usage and attribution
feedback. Give students additional items to practice using the mnemonic and attribution
strategies. Provide corrective feedback and allow opportunities for students to share their
thinking with one another about how they developed their strategies.

STEP 6. Provide generalization instruction, practice, and feedback. Use different types of
materials to demonstrate how the strategy can be applied across content areas and various
types of factual information. Have students practice generating strategies for vocabulary words
in English, for names of famous people and their accomplished in history, for minerals and their
associated attributes in science, and other associated factual information they may need to
learn in school

STEP 7. Include pos1t1ve reinforcement and pos1t1ve attribution training for completing the
tasks and for remembering the information correctly. Provide review …

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