Chapter3-5.pdf

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CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

3.1 THE PHILOSOPHICAL GADFLY
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Socrates: An Examined Life

CHAPTER 3

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Socrates devised no grand systems of metaphysics, episte-
mology, or logic as Plato and Aristotle did, but his influ-
ence on these two intellectual giants was profound.

Unlike many great philosophers, he a!ects people as
much by his character as by his ideas. “rough the power
of his words and the extraordinary force of his personal-
ity, he has helped make philosophy relevant to the daily
lives of ordinary people. At a time when most philosophy
was directed at cosmological speculations (à la “ales, Par-
menides, and others), Socrates turned to critically vexa-
mining people’s basic concepts, core beliefs, and moral
thinking. After him, philosophy was never the same.

3.1 THE PHILOSOPHICAL GADFLY

Socrates (c. 469–399 BCE) was born and raised in Athens
and spent all his days there except for a term of military
service in which he soldiered in the Peloponnesian War.
In battle he was said to be courageous, levelheaded,
and steadfast. In civilian life he was passionate yet self-
controlled; down to earth yet propelled by high ideals
and concern for the spiritual self; plain-spoken yet intel-
lectually sophisticated. Except for his preoccupation with
philosophy, his life was outwardly commonplace—the son
of a stonemason or sculptor, a married man, and the father

of three sons. By all accounts he was ugly, having a pig nose, bulging eyes, outsized
lips, a prominent potbelly, and a peculiar gait. His looks were not helped by his
slovenly appearance (barefoot and unkempt), which fit well with his indi!erence to
material concerns and conventional expectations.

Once at a banquet, Socrates showed that he could be a good sport about his
looks—and make a serious point to boot. One of Socrates’ friends—a handsome
young man named Critobulus—challenged Socrates to a beauty contest in which
each of them would try to persuade the judges (the audience of partygoers) that he
was the more beautiful. Socrates argued in his characteristic style.

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“I would trade all of my
technology for an after-
noon with Socrates.”

—Steve Jobs

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“e ballots for choosing the most handsome were cast and counted, and every
vote went to Critobulus. In mock dismay, Socrates declared that Critobulus must
have bribed the judges.

Despite his unpleasant features, in face-to-face encounters Socrates had a power-
ful impact on those he conversed with. He exuded an inexplicable charisma that was
especially attractive to the young. He unsettled his listeners, prompting them to crit-
ically inspect their beliefs and to question their pursuit of fame, money, power, and
pleasure. “is is how Alcibiades, a bright associate of Socrates,’ describes the e!ect:

“Are you not ashamed of
heaping up the greatest
amount of money and
honour and reputation,
and caring so little about
wisdom and truth and the
greatest improvement of
the soul, which you never
regard or heed at all?”

—Socrates

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To Socrates, this kind of self-examination is essential to living a good life. Noth-
ing, he says, is more important than the care of one’s soul (the inner person), and the
only way to nurture it is through philosophical reflection.

3.2 THE SOCRATIC METHOD

In one form or another, the Socratic method has been part of Western education
for centuries. It is one of the ways that philosophy is done, a powerful procedure for
applying critical thinking to many statements that may seem out of reason’s reach.

As Socrates uses it, the method typically goes like this: (1) Someone poses a question
about the meaning of a concept (for example, What is justice?); (2) Socrates’ companion

Socratic method
Question-and-answer
dialogue in which
propositions are me-
thodically scrutinized to
uncover the truth.

“[Socrates] is the only
person who ever made
me ashamed, which you
might think not to be in
my nature, and there is
no one else who does the
same.”

—Alcibiades

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gives an answer; (3) Socrates raises questions about the answer, proving that the answer
is inadequate; (4) to avoid the problems inherent in this answer, the companion o!ers a
second answer; (5) steps (3) and (4) are repeated a number of times, ultimately revealing
that the companion does not know what he thought he knew. “is negative result may
seem uninformative, but it is actually a kind of progress. False answers are eliminated,
opinions are improved, and perhaps the truth is a little closer than before.

Let’s watch Socrates in action. Here is his conversation with “rasymachus,
a teacher eager to demonstrate that Socrates is not as wise as people say he is.

Early Women Philosophers: Themistoclea, Arignote, and Theano
As we’ve seen (Chapter 2), Pythagoras inspired a long line of followers—Pythagoreans—
dating from the sixth century BCE well into the new millennium. What isn’t so well known
is that many of these followers were women, distinguished philosophers in their own right.
Here is part of Mary Ellen Waithe’s discussion of three of them:

“e ancient sources indicate that women were active in early Pythagorean so-
cieties and may have played a central role in the development of early Pythago-
rean philosophy. Diogenes Laertius reports that:

Aristonexus asserts that Pythagoras derived the greater part of his ethical
doctrines from !emistoclea, the priestess of Delphi.

Early Pythagoreans viewed the cosmos or universe as ly and harmonious.
Everything bears a particular mathematical relationship to everything else.
Harmony and exist when things are in their proper relationship to each
other. “is relationship can be expressed as a mathematical proportion. One of
the “sacred discourses” is attributed to Pythagoras’ daughter, Arignote. Accord-
ing to Arignote:

“e eternal essence of number is the most providential cause of the whole
heaven, earth and region in between. Likewise it is the root of the con-
tinued existence of the gods and daimones, as well as that of divine men.

Arignote’s comment is consistent with one attributed to her mother, !eano of Cro-
tona, in that all that exists, all that is real can be distinguished from other things
through enumeration. “e eternal essence of number is also directly related to the
harmonious coexistence of di!erent things. “is harmony can be expressed as a
mathematical relationship. In these two ways, number is the cause of all things.

Mary Ellen Waithe, “Early Pythagoreans,” in A History of Women Philosophers (Dordrecht: Martinus
Nijho!, 1987), 11–12.

PORTR AIT

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“e question is “What is justice?” and “rasymachus insists that justice is whatever
is in the interests of the strongest—that is, might makes right.

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“In appearance Socrates
was universally admitted
to be extraordinarily ugly,
but it was the kind of ug-
liness which fascinates.”

—W. K. C. Guthrie

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vau28703_ch03_053-075.indd 59 05/09/17 05:59 PM

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